In the recent homeopathy research literature, various investigators have also proposed
structural models quite analogous to what we are proposing, involving formation of
aggregates of water molecules or water clusters, possibly seeded by, but not requiring, the
continued presence of, molecules from the original source substance, e.g. zwitterions or
clathrates [55, 115]. Others have also proposed involvement of a coherent electromagnetic
radiation field within the solvent that contributes order to the molecular motion [ 74, 116].

Del Giudice’s concept of “superradiance” or a “coherence” in an electromagnetic field of
molecular structural elements (extending even into the 100µ range) is similar to some of
our models. Clusters around certain foreign ions at great dilutions have been shown to grow
to the micrometer range as shown in SEM photos with dilution [47]. These authors
concluded: “It appears that there is an equilibrium in the solution between clusters and
aggregates of clusters, which is dynamic and dependent on various factors such as
concentration, solution history, time, temperature, etc.” To which if one adds epitaxy,
nanobubble, and pressure effects, we have an exact statement of our own position. This
complex heterogeneity makes the equilibrium distribution more susceptible to change by
magnetic or electric fields and by the total homeopathic preparation process, including
succussion.

Other new data by Rey demonstrating that successfully diluted water solutions are indeed
different from standards, comes from his recent work on the thermoluminescence of
extremely diluted samples after X-ray irradiation of alkali halides [93]. This data again
supports the case that extreme dilution + epitaxy + succussing, can plausibly result in a water
with different structures, possibly containing a permanent nanobubble colloid, and it can have
measurably different physical properties, a very plausible result from the viewpoint of
materials science, and consistent with the extensive data from the homeopathy research. 

Conclusions 

In 1971, Henry Franks, who was recognized as the leading researcher on water, wrote: “The
current consensus view of water seems to be that water can be treated as a three dimensional
hydrogen bonded network with the bond length and angles being increasingly distorted with
rising temperature, but without a significant number of non-bonded H2O molecules!!” This
shows a leaning to the random network homogeneous structure view. 

F. Franks in his book “Water: Matrix of Life”, in the chapter on “Structure of Water” devotes
one page to diffraction methods, followed by nine pages of “theoretical” and “computational”
approaches [117]. He ends with the quote from Henry Franks, cited above, and then goes on
to say: “Almost three decades later, progress has indeed been made, but it is probably clear
that despite its molecular simplicity, water in the bulk liquid still presents major puzzles to
physical and life scientists.” In other words, we know a lot about the units present, but not
how they are put together.

The key summary conclusion of this work is not inconsistent with some aspects of F. Franks,
but takes the argument in a very different direction by pointing out the key role of the nano-
heterogeneity of liquid water and the resulting ease of change of structure. The understanding
and mental images of the structure of liquid water have been radically distorted in the minds
of most scientists and (thence) the medical community. Liquid water (OH2) like its
remarkably similar analogue SiO2, is not a homogeneous structure at the molecular level. It is
a dynamic equilibrium among changing percentages of assemblages of different oligomers
and polymer species. The structure (architecture) and these assemblages or units themselves
are dependent on temperature (hence its many anomalous property-temperature relationships),
on pressure, and on composition. The structure is thus more responsive to composition
including very low levels of solutes, to magnetic and electric fields, and to “subtle energies.” 

This extreme structural flexibility certainly predisposes water to change by both epitaxy and
succussion. The latter introducing the possibility of a stable nano-airbubble colloid. These
last named factors provide a theoretical plausibility for the robust outcomes data of dozens of
researchers in the homeopathic field, who have reached more or less similar conclusions by
other routes.

The connection of the imprinting, via succussion and possible epitaxy, of the different
specific homeopathic remedies on the structure of water eliminates the primitive criticism of
homeopathy being untenable due to the absence of any remnant of the molecules. Structures
change properties vastly more easily and dramatically than chemistry changes them.
Beyond the homeopathic field, such an enormous structural pliability also provides a plausible
framework for the claims of the most reliable workers in the field of “subtle energies” to be
able to change the structure and properties of water.

While in Fig. 6 we had presented a very primitive 1971 version of nano-heterogenous liquids,
in Fig. 19 we present a different still primitive image which we believe will be valuable to the
reader to start connecting the chemical image of molecules to the materials scientist’s
necessary assemblage of molecules within a constrained condensed matter phase. 

Fig. 19 Cartoon of schematic presentation of the kind of space-filling mixture of molecular units which must
exist in some proportion of smaller 2-4 molecule clusters (Fig. 8) and other larger molecules up to the calculated
280 molecule units shown in Fig. 9, to emphasize the key element of heterogeneity of structure within water.
Unfortunately, the figure cannot easily present the scaled spatial relations among the actual molecules, nor the
probable clusters which are present because no such data exist.The forces between the clusters outlined in black
Must be very much weaker than the intracluster forces, although the bond terminations are not drawn thus. 

In conclusion, this paper has outlined testable hypotheses about the ability to alter the
structure of water in the unltra-dilute regime, through epitaxy coupled with succussion
(vigorous shaking) generating pressure and nano-bubbles leading to properties markedly
different than those of untreated water.

Acknowledgements This paper has been made possible by a grant from the Friends of Health foundation.
Also supported in part by NIH grant K24 AT00057 (Bell).